Characterization of Slopeland Environment and Resources

Amado R. Maglinao
Agricultural Resources Management Research and Development,
Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research
and Development (ARMRD-PCARRD), 1998-09-01

Introduction

Agenda 21 posed an uncompromising challenge to agriculture — that of meeting the need for food of the predicted 7-8 billion people within the next 30 years. Concern has been raised regarding the capacity of available resource and technologies to satisfy this need.

As available areas in the lowlands have been decreased considerably by population pressure, urbanization and industrialization, sloping uplands are now being intensively utilized for crop production.

Sloping upland areas dominate most of the countries in Southeast Asia and China (IBSRAM 1992). The South China subtropical red and yellow soil regions occupy an area of 218 million hectares, 90% of which is located in mountainous or hilly areas. In Thailand, about 35% of the country's area is hilly and mountainous and mostly concentrated in the northern and western parts of the country. Hilly lands in the Philippines are estimated at 9.4 million hectares, or about 31% of the total land area. Steeplands occupy 4.7 million hectares, or 36% of the total land of Peninsular Malaysia. In Vietnam, sloping lands occupy 25 million hectares, or 75% of the total area of the country.

Upland agricultural systems contrast with the less heterogeneous lowland rice systems which have historically received overwhelming attention. Interrelatedness and complexity are fundamental conditions of the land use problems of sloping uplands. There is now the urgent need to redirect our knowledge systems to the understanding of the basic responses and processes in the sloping upland ecosystem, to ensure that the future generation will not inherit lands that are non-productive, severely degraded, and subsequently desertified.

Characterization of Sloping Permanent Farmlands

Garrity (undated) identified three key ecosystems where the International Center for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) has directed its activities. These are: forest margins, Imperata (Cogon) grasslands and sloping permanent farmlands. In this paper, the discussion will primarily focus on the last category, i.e., sloping permanent farmlands.

Physiography, Soils and Climate

Physiography and soils. Sloping uplands range from gently sloping areas with moderate soil fertility to hilly areas with generally acid and infertile soils. In the Soil Taxonomy system of classification, a large area of the sloping uplands are classified under the Soil Order Ultisol. In the Philippines, about 12.4 million hectares or 49% of the total upland area has been classified as Ultisols (Evangelista 1993). This is followed by Inceptisols and Alfisols at 16% and 12% of the total upland area, respectively (Table 1).

The characterization of the representative sites of the IBSRAM ASIALAND Network on the Management of Sloping Lands in Asia also showed that the areas are gently rolling to undulating and generally well-drained. The slopes range from 2 to 60%, and have an elevation ranging from 60 to 1935 m above sea level (Table 2).

In general, constraints to upland agricultural production of Ultisols are their low inherent fertility and moderate erodibility. Ultisols are also strongly acidic, owing to the extensive weathering of soil parent material and leaching of bases. Ultisols respond well to liming, N, P, and K application including trace elements. Good physical properties for tillage and moderate resistance to erosion give them their high potential for upland agriculture.

Unlike the Ultisols, Alfisols have medium acidity and moderate fertility, commonly indicated by their high base saturation (>35%). Thus they have better potential for agriculture. Like Ultisols, Alfisols are also susceptible to erosion when left bare of vegetative cover. The good physical properties for tillage and moderate resistance to erosion when provided with adequate conservation measures make them suited to upland farming.

Inceptisols and Entisols are generally fertile with slightly acidic to neutral reaction, but their use for upland agriculture is limited by their shallow depth and high susceptibility to erosion by virtue of their position in the landscape.

Oxisols are highly leached soils with udic moisture regime. They occur on mountainous terrain. These soils are low in fertility, acidic and have low water holding capacity. Their major constraints to upland farming is low inherent fertility.

Montecillo (1983) showed that soils in the hilly areas are generally highly weathered and infertile. The mineralogy of these soils is dominated by kaolinite and sesquioxides of iron and aluminum. Many are strongly acidic (with a pH < 5.5), have a low to moderate organic matter content, low cation exchange capacity (CEC) and base saturation, and low levels of available phosphorus. Some of the physical and chemical properties of the soils in the ASIALAND network are shown in Table 3 and Table 4.

The relatively acidic condition of upland tropical soils results from intensive weathering which is hastened by high temperature and rainfall. In many tropical regions, acid soils are the infertile common ground of the moist savannas, hillsides and forest margins. They are generally low in productivity, low in plant available nutrients, and contain toxic levels of aluminum and manganese for plant growth. They are also prone to degradation via accelerated erosion, crusting and compaction, loss of organic matter and nutrient depletion.

Climate. The climate of Southeast Asia includes both the humid tropics and the wet-dry tropics (Yost et al, 1987). The humid tropics generally do not have a dry season, or have only a few months which are relatively drier. These areas are located near the equator where the daylength and solar radiation show little seasonal variation and the relative humidity is high. Diurnal temperature variation is greater than the total annual variation. Rainfall is often of high intensity and strongly localized in the form of thunder showers.

The seasonality of the rainfall becomes more striking in the wet-dry tropics. There are many different rainfall regimes which can be classified according to the relative length of the rainy and dry seasons.

Most of the sites in the ASIALAND network have high temperature and rainfall (Table 5). Maximum temperature ranges from 25°C to 36°C, while the minimum temperature ranges from 10°C to 28°C. Annual rainfall ranges from 1176 to 2752 mm.

Biological Diversity

In general, the vegetation of the sloping uplands is composed of Imperata (cogon) grass and native grasses and short shrubs, particularly in those areas that are left fallowed. In areas that are cleared for agricultural production, as in the case of shifting cultivation, a number of annual crops are grown. As observed in the Philippines, the newly cleared forest area is further cleared of unburned materials at the start of the rainy season. Rice, corn and other annual crops are dibbled into the soil, using a pointed stick. In the uplands of the northern provinces of Vietnam where shifting cultivation is also commonly practiced, short maturity crops such as rice, maize, cassava, and beans are usually grown.

With the increasing population, the area used for shifting cultivation has decreased and the fallow period has shortened. A large and rapidly expanding portion of the uplands has been converted to a permanent cropping system. These farms are found in the relatively more accessible sloping areas, closest to the lowlands and nearest to the roads. They are predominantly cultivated with subsistence food crops, but perennial plantation crops are also common.

Various tree crops dominate the slopeland agriculture in Malaysia. A crop mix of rubber, oil palm and cocoa is common on large plantations. Fruit crops are grown on a smaller scale and single crop species, either rubber, oil palm or cocoa, are common on small landholdings. While the trees are still young, shorter duration crops such as banana, papaya, groundnut, or maize may be grown in the interrows. Other mixed fruit farms have durian, rambutan, mangosteen, duku langsat, jackfruit and mango.

In the Philippines, the crops commonly grown in the permanently farmed sloping lands are coconut, corn, banana, abaca, upland rice, root crops, and fruits. Particularly in the coconut areas in Batangas and Cavite provinces in Luzon, multi-storey cropping is practiced. Farmers plant coconut, pineapple, papaya, coffee, and jackfruit on the same piece of land.

Rubber is grown in about 1.4 million hectares or 8% of the total agricultural area of Thailand. Of this area, 55.5% is gently rolling, 30% is rolling or hilly, and 14.5% is mountainous and hilly. Contour cultivation is practiced in areas with less than 8% slope, while terracing is common in steeper areas.

More intensive land use is being practiced in some high-altitude areas. In the Cameroon Highlands in Peninsular Malaysia, subtropical and temperate crops like tea, flowers, citrus and other fruits and some 25 types of vegetables are grown in about 5,000 ha. These are cultivated in slopes of more than 18% reaching even up to 70%. In the mountain provinces in Luzon in the Philippines, intensive vegetable farming of temperate crops is also widespread. Similarly, it also entails the heavy use of fertilizers and pesticides.

The livestock component in the sloping farmland ecosystem appears to be limited to only a few species of domesticated animals. The most common animals raised are cattle, pigs, and chicken. Moreover, they are the native breeds and usually raised in the traditional way.

The raising of animals is a way in which the farm family can augment their food resources and income. As population density increases, most farmers obtain an animal for draft power. This enables a household to till intensively a much larger area than is possible by hand hoe, at a fraction of the time and drudgery. They can plow and harrow frequently enough to control weeds and annual grasses that invade frequently-tilled fields.

In the IBSRAM network sites, the dominant crops planted are food and cash crops, although some perennials are also grown (Table 6). The common food and cash crops are rice, corn, cassava and vegetables. The perennial crops are coconut, rubber and a number of fruit trees like rambutan, jackfruit, avocado, and mango.

The animals raised are pigs, chickens, goats, ducks, horses, cattle and buffalo. While the small animals are raised to augment the farmers' income and for food, the larger animals like horses, cattle and buffalo are used for draft power.

Most of the food crops are grown for home consumption and the fruits from the perennial crops are sold in the market. Some crops are also used for livestock feeds.

Socio-Economic Conditions

The less favorable biophysical characteristics of the sloping uplands could also have contributed to the less favorable socio-economic conditions prevailing in these areas. In addition to the poor soils, there is also lack of adequate water supply and transportation facilities. Moreover, there are problems of inadequate institutional assistance, lack of security of tenure, low farm income, lack of capital for farm production, large family size, insufficient education and inadequate marketing and policy support.

The data showed that the farmers have a relatively large family size, smaller farm area and very low educational level (Table 7). Some are even illiterate.

The perceived problems of the farmers in the sloping lands (Table 8) can also be related to the socio-economic conditions they are in. The declining soil fertility can be due to their inability to apply the appropriate techniques of agriculture because of lack of financial resources and/or the lack of knowledge. Nevertheless, the data show the commonality among these farmers in the sloping lands in the different countries in Asia.

As the main land users of sloping land areas, resource-poor farmers are caught in an ever-tightening cycle of low inputs and low productivity resulting in further impoverishment of the resource base - their soils and water, and the accompanying stock of biodiversity. Intensified land use in the areas of shifting cultivation leads to shorter rest times for fallow fields and, ultimately, to soil degradation and reduced crop yields. This inevitably gives rise to a non-sustainable system, incapable of supporting a growing community.

Indigenous Technical Knowledge

Many development projects have failed because local knowledge has not been given due consideration. This indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) can take many forms. Farmers know intimately the capabilities of their soils; fisherfolks know the best conditions of wind and sea for a good catch; traditional healers have a repertoire of herbs to treat a variety of ills. While some of this knowledge is superstitious, some of it has a sound, scientifically-valid basis.

Maglinao (1997) made a review of indigenous technical knowledge in relation to land management and soil conservation in the Philippines (Table 9). Indigenous soil concepts served as a foundation in the development of indigenous soil classification schemes. These are based on the variability of soils in terms of productivity potential, differential ability of productive and nonproductive soils, and soil properties associated with productive and nonproductive soils. Some of these classification schemes can either be simple or sophisticated. A simple scheme uses one or two soil properties in differentiating productivity of soils, while a sophisticated system uses more than two properties and the interaction effects of these properties.

A number of indigenous soil management practices to control soil erosion and manage soil fertility also exist. Soil erosion control measures include intensive mixed cropping and mechanical measures. Selection of inherently fertile soils, fallowing and forest regeneration, planting leguminous trees, composting, and incorporation of crop residues, are just examples of these practices.

It can be noted that most of the indigenous practices are sustainable. It is therefore worth considering these systems and practices in planning and implementing programs and projects. With some modifications, indigenous systems could very well blend with the results of scientific evaluation.

Technological Support for Sloping Lands

Perhaps the biggest challenge facing farmers, economists and scientists today is to develop sustainable farming systems to support the increasing population in these fragile areas. Lal (1987) summarized the potential technologies related to soil and water conservation, cropping systems, fertility maintenance, weed control and restoration of degraded lands (Table 10).

Maglinao and Hashim (1993) also made a review of technologies which can reduce soil degradation and increase agricultural production. These technologies were categorized into agronomic, mechanical and soil management measures.

Agronomic Measures

When considering strategies for erosion control, agronomic measures are given first priority because they are less costly, require no special equipment or machinery, need less maintenance and could be easily fitted into the existing farming systems. Some of these measures are: 1) mulching, 2) cover cropping, 3) buffer strip (hedgerow) planting, 4) crop rotation, 5) relay cropping, 6) high density planting, and 7) multiple cropping.

Basically, these measures either provide ground cover to reduce the impact of rain or some barrier to reduce the velocity of runoff.

Mulching provides a cover of crop residues such as straw, corn stalks, palm fronds or standing stubbles for the soil. This cover reduces the surface area exposed to raindrop impact and decreases runoff velocity by imparting roughness. It also reduces soil temperature and water loss due to evaporation. To be effective, a mulch should cover 50 - 75% of the soil surface. It is generally recommended that 0.5 kg straw or 0.8 kg corn stalk per square meter will provide adequate erosion control.

Creeping legumes with dense foliage can also provide ground surface cover. Cover crops are grown either during the off-season (fallow period) or as ground cover protection under tree crops (e.g. under coconut and citrus trees). A cover should be fast-growing, hardy, and drought-tolerant. Some commonly used cover crops include: tropical kudzu, centrosema, calopogonium, desmodium, and stylo.

Hedgerows established along contour lines could act as a barrier to erosion and runoff. Tree or shrub legumes such as Leucaena and Gliricidia are commonly used. The strips in between hedgerows, which vary from 4 to 10 m in width, are utilized for food crops such as corn, upland rice, mungbean, and vegetables.

Agroforestry is a collective name for a range of land use practices in which trees or shrubs are grown in association with herbaceous plants (crops or pastures), in spatial arrangement or a time sequence, and in which there are both ecological and economic interactions between the tree and non-tree components of the system. For economic purposes, food crops are grown along with perennial trees in one farm area. Trees are incorporated into the farming system to help contribute to fertility maintenance and soil conservation, in addition to providing the farmer's requirement for food, fuel, fruit, fodder, etc.

Rotating different crops in succession on the same piece of land provides better ground cover, builds up soil organic matter, improves soil structure, and controls pest and diseases. Generally, a grain crop is followed by a legume crop, a shallow-rooted crop is followed by a deep-rooted crop. To provide continuous ground cover and protect the soil from erosive rains throughout the year, relay cropping could also be done. Here, two or more annual crops are grown, with the second crop planted after the first crop has flowered or nearing its harvest. The second crop can make use of the residual moisture still available for plant growth. Multiple cropping or the growing of two or more crops on the same piece of land at the same time could also be practiced.

Increasing the density of monoculture crops not only increases the yield but also reduces the fraction of the soil exposed to raindrop impact. Studies have shown that increasing the population density of corn from 25,000 plants/ha to 37,000 plants/ha supplemented with residue mulch at the higher density reduced soil loss from 12.3 to 0.7 mt/ha.

Mechanical Structures

Mechanical methods of soil conservation are normally employed with agronomic measures. These techniques are employed to control the movement of water, reduce runoff velocities, increase surface storage, and dispose of excess water safely. Terraces, diversion ditches and check dams are among the mechanical measures not only for control of soil erosion but also for water conservation.

Terraces are broad channels or benches constructed across the slope to break the fast flow of water in droughty areas. Building terraces breaks up long slopes into a series of short ones with reduced steepness. This interrupts the flow of runoff water and gives time for it to infiltrate into the soil. It could also be used to divert the runoff to other safe channels.

Bench terraces are the oldest type of mechanical structures in hillyland farming (e.g. the Banaue rice terraces in the Philippines). These are stair-like earthen platforms separated by nearly vertical risers which are reinforced by either rocks or earth with vegetation. Bench terraces are popular in places where there are limited flat areas and where there is great demand for food production.

Diversion ditches and grassed waterways are used to convey runoff at a non-erosive velocity to a suitable disposal point. They are constructed across the slope with a slight grade to intercept runoff from the top of the hillside and convey it to a suitable outlet. Grassed waterways are used as the outlet of the diversion ditches. They run downslope, usually located in natural gullies on hillside and empty into rivers or other outlets. Creeping grasses are encouraged to grow in this kind of waterway.

The construction of water impounding structures to collect and store rainwater is now a major thrust of the Philippine government to address the problem of flash floods, and drought during the dry season. The construction and utilization of the small farm reservoirs (SFRs) have been given government support. The SFRs are water impounding earth structures designed for use on a single farm. The water collected provides supplemental irrigation for wet season cropping, full irrigation for a dry season crop, and the opportunity to raise fish. The structure also provides a good measure of soil and water conservation.

Soil Management

Good soil management is crucial for maintaining productivity and conserving the hillylands. Soil conserving tillage practices and soil fertility management, such as fertilization and liming, minimize soil nutrient depletion and promote crop growth and yield.

Conservation tillage could be achieved by contour cultivation, minimum tillage and mulch tillage. Plowing, harrowing, and furrowing across the slope is effective in minimizing soil erosion on gentle slopes, reducing soil loss by up to 50%. However, if used on steep slopes and in areas of high rainfall, contouring even increases the risk of gully formation when the ridges of the rows holding the water break. In such cases, contouring should be combined with other soil conservation practices such as terracing or buffer strip planting.

With minimum tillage, the seedbed is prepared with minimal soil disturbance. This is done with the use of either herbicides or farm tools to kill or remove weeds, followed by tillage to open only a narrow seedband or hole where the seeds are sown. In effect, this particular method leaves the interrow areas untilled. Tillage, weeding, and planting operations are carried out simultaneously to minimize exposure time of the bare soil surface to the elements of erosion. Mulch tillage leaves a large quantity of residues (leaves, stalks, crowns and roots) on the surface as a protective mulch during tillage.

The importation of mineral nutrients (i.e., nutrients other than nitrogen) is essential to the development of sustainable food crop production on permanent farms in the uplands. Because the majority of soils are strongly acidic, phosphorus is often the most limiting nutrient, and lime is often necessary to alleviate aluminum toxicity. Sound soil management implies not only maintenance but also the restoration of fertility and structure of a soil through judicious use of fertilizers. Farmers should be encouraged to use more organic fertilizers, such as composts, green manures, and animal manures, because these kinds of fertilizers are known to improve the cohesiveness of the soil, increase its water holding capacity, and promote stable aggregate structure.

The results of the IBSRAM studies have shown that a minimum fertilizer input has had a major effect on the yields of crops. Furthermore, there was a dramatic effect in reducing erosion. The use of fertilizers reduced erosion from over 50 mt/ha to 10 mt/ha. Increasing the rate of fertilizer resulted in an increase not only in the yield of rice grain, but also in straw, and thus ground cover.

Crop-Livestock Integration

While a number of studies have already shown the potential of agropastoral systems that integrate crop and livestock production in sloping lands, the livestock component has remained underexplored as compared to the crop component. The integrated system has proven to be more productive and more efficient than either cropping or pastures alone. In fact, FFTC has been aggressive in this aspect by conducting workshops and training programs on crop-livestock integration.

The livestock component can contribute to the system by serving as a source of power for the operations in the farm and manure which can be used as organic fertilizer to improve the fertility of the already degraded soils in the uplands. On the other hand, crop residues can be used to supplement the feed requirement of the animals.

As agricultural production must be increased substantially, the potential of crop-livestock farming system should be given due consideration. This system could provide farmers with the means of producing sufficient food from the same land without the socially unacceptable environmental costs.

Development of Sustainable Agriculture in Sloping Lands

A good number of technologies in the development of sustainable agriculture are apparently available, but these technologies seem to be unproven in the diversity of environments and farmer circumstances in the sloping lands. Although more and more farmers are becoming aware of erosion and its effects, the utilization and adoption of conservation farming technologies seem to remain low and slow.

Constraints to Technology Adoption

The success of transferring a new technology innovation is commonly evaluated by its acceptance and sustained adoption by the target clientele. In general, farmers do not just do things by trial and error. In relating to new interventions, they complement the information they receive with their existing knowledge and past experiences (Bonifacio, 1994).

Recognizing the inadequate understanding of the farmers as one reason for the slow adoption of improved technologies, studies have been conducted to evaluate farmer's perception of land management problems and technologies and their reasons for adoption or nonadoption. Results of these studies invariably pointed to the complex nature of the adoption process and the many interrelated factors affecting its sustainability.

In Claveria in the Philippines, Fujisaka (1993, 1995) reported the common farmer perceptions on soils, soil nutrients, soil erosion, and solutions to soil erosion problems and concluded that these perceptions are essentially correct. However, there are other factors that need to be considered in the farmers' decision to adopt the technology of contour hedgerows. Among them are: 1) sufficient soil tillage and rainfall to cause both soil erosion as a problem and enable natural terracing to take place as a solution, 2) lack of off- and non-farm labor opportunities, 3) closed land frontier and unprofitable shift to other parcels, 4) survival of the hedgerow even during the dry season, and 5) cooperation of the community members.

It was also observed that while the initial farmer adoptors employed the basic requirements of the technology, late adoptors already incorporated some technical modifications and adaptations of the technology. They modified the procedure of establishment of the hedgerows to reduce the labor required. For instance, they save labor by reduced plowing, virtual elimination of shovel work to reinforce the bunds, and planting either trees or grasses rather than combinations. In effect, they also gave themselves more flexibility in the choice of the hedgerow species to use.

Evaluating farmers' adoption in six projects on conservation farming, Fujisaka (1991) again cited a number of reasons why farmers do not adopt the recommended technologies. These are: 1) the absence of any conservation problem, 2) inappropriate innovation, 3) general unawareness, 4) facility of innovation, 5) incorrect identification of adoption domain, 6) appropriateness of farmers' practice, 7) adverse off-site effects, 8) problems from innovations, 9) cost of the innovation, 10) lack of extension, 11) insecure land tenure, 12) farmers mining resources, and 13) negative social connotations.

In Thailand, Ruaysoongnern and Patanothai (1991), looking at conservation and soil improvement technologies, showed that while farmers are familiar with the concepts of these technologies, they are not capable of adopting some critical parts of the recommended practices. In some cases, farmers could not perceive any real benefits from the recommended technologies for their families, either in the short- or in the long-term. In cases where benefits were clearly shown to farmers, they have intentionally incorporated some of the recommended practices to their traditional production systems.

The adoption or nonadoption of an indigenous soil and water conservation technique in Matalom, Leyte, also in the Philippines was studied by Balina et al. (1992). For the adoptors and partial adoptors, the foremost reason was to prevent soil erosion. For nonadoptors, one reason was that they do not perceive soil erosion in their fields. In addition, they believe that the grass strips will reduce the area for cropping and make cultivation more difficult.

Certain socioeconomic variables significantly affect the likelihood and the extent of adoption of a soil conservation technology in the Philippine uplands. The results of surveys of two sites by Lapar and Pandey (undated) showed that biophysical factors like slope and the perception of the incidence of soil erosion are positive influences on the likelihood and extent of adoption. Access to markets also appears to be a significant positive influence in the extent of adoption.

The economic benefits that can be derived by the farmers from using a given technology, particularly in the short-term, is a strong force which can attract farmers to adopt. This is shown in the relatively fast adoption of the small farm reservoir technology in the Philippines. Although the government is supporting its promotion, more and more farmers have started to adopt it using their own resources. The benefits and income from fish production have convinced them to adopt the technology (Maglinao et al. 1994, 1995). This is an example of a technique where the farmers see the short-term benefits, although they may be unaware of the long-term beneficial effects on soil and water conservation.

Almoite (1995) identified four major factors that have direct and positive effect on the farmer adoption of the agroforestry technologies in northern Philippines. These factors are related to: 1) the farmer, 2) the technology, 3) the change agent, and 4) other intervening factors like market and prices, credit facilities, farming incentives, etc. Almost similar factors affecting adoption of soil conservation technologies were also identified by Cook and Fahrney (1991). These include education, economic incentives, and land tenure.

The reasons for the adoption or nonadoption of introduced technologies could therefore be related to factors as technical (physical and biological), economic, social and even political. These factors interact with each other in a complex way and vary from technology to technology and from situation to situation. Developing a sustainable land management technology that would be acceptable to farmers is not a simple technological problem, but a socio-economic concern as well (Fig. 1).

Enhancing Technology Adoption

Technologies will only be adopted if these are acceptable to the farmers and if the target beneficiaries fully understand their farm requirements and basic technological needs to sustain farming as a livelihood. The participatory research-extension approach with farmers playing an active role is now being given more attention. Maglinao (1996) suggested a conceptual model for an integrated approach to facilitate technology transfer and adoption (Fig. 2). The model highlights the complementation among the research, the extension and the farming communities.

Extension workers should no longer be considered as passive recipients of new technological knowledge to be transferred to the farmers. They should be active participants in the farming community who bring back their knowledge of the farm situation to the researchers. While researchers may not be in contact with farmers as often as extension workers are, they are nevertheless involved in the formulation of research agenda which incorporates the inputs of farmers and extension workers. As the need arises, they deal directly with farmers or together with extension workers, serve as facilitators in sharing knowledge and techniques.

The process of sharing knowledge among members of the farming community, researchers and extension workers makes the contribution of the participatory approach to technology transfer more lasting. Since most farmers utilize the prevailing production standards in a community, technology transfer has greater chances of success if new techniques are developed in a community-based interactive way. Such an approach will also enable farmers, researchers and extension workers to document community-wide adjustments in production brought about by new techniques. Problems with the technology can also be monitored and new approaches suggested, thereby further improving production.

The extent to which relevant information are available at the right time, packaged, and translated into usable forms determines the success or failure of a technology transfer effort. Thus, relevant, timely and accurate information will undoubtedly strengthen the linkage among the researchers, the extension workers and the farmers and enhance technology transfer and adoption.

Characterization of Data and Information

In order to transfer agricultural technology within a resource management domain, it is essential to have relational data bases on soils, climate, crop yields, land use and the social and economic conditions prevailing in the area. The main question, however, for the establishment of the data bases is not much the hardware and software which are needed, but more the collection of the data to feed the base (Latham, 1995). Some data can be extracted from international data bases, but more still need to be collected from experimentations, field surveys, and monitoring of farm and other land management systems. IBSRAM has already published the methodological guidelines for soil, climatic and socioeconomic characterization followed by its soil management networks (IBSRAM, 1994). This book can be a good reference in doing environment and resources characterization earlier presented.

To organize, interpret and use the data and information, Shaw et al. (1995) suggested the need for an integrated approach where data, geographical information systems (GIS), models and decision support systems (DSS) are linked on a multi-disciplinary basis (Fig. 3). Decision support systems can assist in evaluating untried options for situations where traditional practices are more likely to be adopted than innovative practices or new management schemes with greater environmental sustainability, because of lack of awareness of alternatives. Again, IBSRAM is already finalizing a methodology to use DSS for sustainable land management (DSS-SLM).

The quantity of information as well as their level of aggregation or disaggregation will depend on the spatial applicability of the analysis. In applying different simulation models, Shaw et. al. (1995) showed that their complexity and the degree of detail of the information decrease as the spatial applicability increases (Fig. 4). In evaluating sustainable agriculture and environmental risks, the consequences are often required over long time periods. In relation to making decisions, the quantity of information also decreases with the value and relevance to decision making.

Summary and Recommendations

1. Because of population pressure, urbanization and industrialization, the favorable land areas in the lowlands available for agriculture have considerably decreased. This has resulted in the shift of agricultural activities to the more marginal and fragile sloping upland ecosystem.
2. To provide a rational basis for sloping land development and utilization, the characterization of the environment and resources in these areas is critical. Scanning for the relationships and interactions of the physical, biological, socioeconomic and technical components of the ecosystem will be essential in identifying and implementing sustainable farming systems in these areas.
3. Sloping uplands range from gently rolling areas with moderate soil fertility to hilly areas with generally acid and infertile soils. They are highly weathered with the dominance of kaolinite and sesquioxides of iron and aluminum, low to moderate organic matter content, and low base saturation. This physical condition of the soil resources in the sloping uplands necessarily needs better management to give higher productivity.
4. The vegetation of the sloping uplands is composed of Imperata and native grasses and short shrubs, particularly in the areas that are left fallowed. In cultivated areas, the dominant vegetation are food and cash crops. Perennials also abound in most areas.
5. The livestock raised by farmers in the sloping uplands has been limited to a few domesticated animals. Large animals are used for draft while the others serve as additional source of meat and other food products. Integrating crops and livestock in the farming system has potential for increasing productivity and sustainability, but further investigation is still needed.
6. The socio-economic condition in the sloping lands can be considered as marginal as the biophysical components. In addition to the poor soils, there is also a lack of adequate water supply and transportation facilities. Moreover, there are problems of inadequate institutional assistance, lack of security of tenure, low farm income, lack of capital for farm production, large family size, insufficient education and inadequate marketing and policy support.
7. While the socio-economic conditions in the slopelands are relatively inferior, the farmers in the sloping uplands have practices that can conserve the productivity of their areas. In introducing new technologies, this indigenous knowledge should be given due consideration.
8. Quite a few potential technologies and techniques are already available, but their application in the diverse environments in the uplands needs further study. The technical feasibility of these practices should complement the socio-economic conditions in the uplands.
9. The development of sustainable agriculture in the sloping uplands needs an innovative approach which should consider the environment and resources characteristics of the area. Moreover, the approach must give due attention to the different actors in development, their specific roles and the interaction among them.

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Index of Images

Table 1 Classification and Extent of Upland Soils in the Philippines.
Figure 2 Conceptual Model for an Intergrated Approach to Technology Transfer and Adoption Indicating the Complementation among the Research, Extension and Farming Communities. (from Maglinao 1996)
Figure 3 A Schematic Framework Linking Data through Gis and Models to a DSS Illustrating the Involvement of Different Stakeholders and Disciples (from Shaw <I>Et Al.</I> 1995)
Figure 4 Relationship between Quantity of Information/Degree of Detail and Information Value/Spatial Applicability (Modified from Shaw<I> Et Al.</I> 1995)
Table 2 Some General Characteristics of the Representative Sites in the Ibsram Asialand Network.
Table 4 Some Chemical Properties of the Soils in the Representative Sites of the Ibsram Asialand Network.
Figure 1 Degree of Transferability and Acceptance of Innovation on the Basis of Four Evaluation Criteria (Adapted from Maglinao 1994)
Table 3 Some Physical Properties of the Soils in the Ibsram Asialand Network.
Table 5 Temperature and Precipitation in Representative Sites in the Ibsram Asialand Network.
Table 6 Crops Grown and Livestock Commonly Raised by Farmers in the Ibsram Asialand Network Sites.
Table 7 Some Socio-Economic Characteristics of Farmers in the Sloping Lands of Asia.
Table 8 Perceived Problems by the Farmers in the Sloping Lands.
Table 9 Indigenous Soil Classification and the Equivalent Soil Taxonomic Classification
Table 10 Technologies Related to Soil and Water Conservation, Fertility Maintenance, Weed Control and Restoration of Degraded Lands